Lithium News

Ducati is well known for their motorcycle legacy, and they have even teased that an electric Ducati motorcycle is in the works. But now it looks like they’ll leverage a new partnership to unveil a Ducati electric scooter first.

Is a Ducati electric scooter coming?

A recent announcement by Vmoto, a China-based electric scooter and motorcycle manufacturer, revealed that Ducati has signed a licensing agreement with the company to produce a Ducati electric scooter.

The partnership agreement indicates that the Ducati-branded CUx electric scooters will be “official products under the license of Ducati”.

These won’t be just any CUx electric scooters either. Vmoto says that they’ll create a luxury version of the scooter to be offered to customers at a premium price.

The Ducati-branded CUx electric scooters will be distributed and sold using Vmoto’s existing network, but Ducati will handle much of the marketing.

Ducati’s CEO has previously hinted that the company was already working on its own electric motorcycle, though this isn’t the direction that many were expecting the company to go. Ducati also has experience with marketing its own line of electric bicycles, so this won’t be the first time Ducati has strayed from the beaten path to offer an electrically powered two-wheeler.

In a statement from Charles Chen, Vmoto’s Managing Director:

“This is an exciting agreement for Vmoto and we are thrilled that Ducati – renowned for being a top-end manufacturer of Italian motorcycles – has agreed to associate its premium reputation and brand with our electric vehicles. The deal will allow Ducati’s fans to have the opportunity to access premium and high quality 2-wheel electric vehicles supplied by Vmoto and create more confidence to Vmoto’s expanding distributors especially in Europe and further grow Vmoto’s product awareness in these markets. The release of these premium, limited-edition 2-wheel electric vehicles will command higher pricing and profit margins and are expected to contribute to sales growth over the next two financial years.”

The CUx electric scooter has so far been marketed under the Super SOCO brand. Vmoto is the parent company of Super SOCO.

The 2019 CUx electric scooter currently features a 2.8 kW (3.75 hp) Bosch hub motor and top speed of 45 km/h (28 mph). Not exactly blistering fast, but appropriate for urban applications where the electric scooter is designed to fit into existing regulations that limit the top speed of such vehicles.

The scooter has a 1.8 kWh battery pack that offers up to 75 km of range. The scooter also includes a front facing camera that can be used as an action camera for social media sharing or as a dash cam.

“There is a global effort underway to increase the energy density and safety of lithium ion batteries,” explained Nano One CEO, Dan Blondal, “and solid-state batteries are one of the more promising solutions. Nano One has developed a number of cathode materials and processes that have caught the attention of the industry, primarily from within the automotive sector. We have many third-party evaluations now underway with the goal of partnering to make solid state batteries a reality.”

Nano One’s cathode material development program includes enhancements that are designed to prevent chemical side reactions, for improved safety and longevity. These enhancements apply to Nano One’s NMC and High Voltage Spinel cathode materials. NMC batteries are critical to long range electric vehicles, while High Voltage Spinel has long term strategic value because it enables high energy densities, fast charging, and is free of cobalt and the associated supply chain risk.

Mr. Blondal said, “We are collaborating with industry leaders to identify the most promising cathode materials for next generation lithium ion batteries, and we are working to convert these leads into partners, as we did recently with Pulead Technology and Saint-Gobain. Nano One is executing on its plans and is well positioned to capitalize on rising automotive interest in both electrode technology and solid-state lithium ion batteries.”

The U.S. push to challenge China’s dominance in the production and sale of electric vehicles has at least one weak link: Most of the raw materials needed to make the batteries are dug elsewhere.

China- and U.S.-based companies have invested heavily in lithium mining projects in Chile, Australia and Argentina, some of the world’s top producing nations. But unlike the United States, Chinese companies also have invested at home, with the Asian nation producing almost eight times more lithium domestically than the United States.

The raw materials gap will be discussed at a May 2 meeting in Washington expected to draw government officials, carmakers, mining companies and consultants on the need for streamlining the U.S. permit process for new lithium projects and stockpiling purchases.

“It has been decades since a lithium refining facility has been built in the United States,” said Eric Norris, the lithium president of North Carolina-based Albemarle Corp., the world’s largest producer of the mineral. “Any new project will take time to develop, as the regulatory bodies determine required permits, potential community impact, etc.”

Boosting local production of the raw minerals would be the first step toward building out a rechargeable battery industry that so far has been concentrated in Asia. The United States controls only about 13% of the global lithium cell production capacity, with no growth expected, according to Bloomberg. China now controls about two-thirds of that industry and Bloomberg is forecasting it could grow to about 73% by 2021.

The difference already is showing up in sales. About half of the world’s electric vehicles are sold in China, a figure that is rising. Sales jumped by 150% during the first quarter of 2018, compared with the previous year, according to Bloomberg.

“You can’t build half a million electric-vehicle battery packs without a secure supply of several critical raw materials,” said Chris Berry, a battery metals analyst at House Mountain Partners. “If the U.S. lags in the build out of lithium or cathode capacity, its supply chain dynamism and competitiveness around the new energy theme is put at risk.”

China’s Jiangxi Ganfeng Lithium Co. acquired 37.5% of the Cauchari-Olaroz lithium project in Argentina, which is set to start producing in 2021. Tianqi Lithium Corp. paid $4 billion for a 24% stake in Soc. Quimica & Minera de Chile, and the same company is part of the Talison joint venture, which controls the giant Greenbushes lithium mine in Australia.

This week’s meeting in Washington is hosted by Benchmark Mineral Intelligence, an industry consultant that specializes in the lithium-ion battery supply chain. In testimony before Congress in February, the firm’s leader, Simon Moores, warned that the U.S. current role in the supply chain was being “outflanked” by China. Moores confirmed the meeting in an e-mail. Albemarle’s Norris said he will be attending the meeting.

“There’s no reason why companies can’t raise capital and build and operate lithium mines in the U.S,” Berry said. “The permitting process can be somewhat longer in the U.S. relative to other parts of the world, but with so much focus on sustainability and transparency of the supply chain, environmental safeguards are a must.”

But with demand for lithium set to boom from above 300,000 tons a year to a million tons by 2025, mining companies need to grow fast, and they prefer to do so in jurisdictions they know well. Albemarle, the only company producing lithium in the United States, said in a written answer to questions it is focusing on expanding current operations in Australia and Chile.

It is too early to comment on viability or timing of an expansion at Silver Peak, a mine that produces 6,000 tons of lithium carbonate per year, Albemarle’s Norris said. The company completed an exploration program at a hard rock site in Kings Mountain, but Norris described it as a long-term asset in very early stages of assessment.

No lithium mines are expected to start producing in the United States over the next three years, and no substantial lithium production is set to hit global markets within the next five years, according to Bloomberg chemicals analyst Christopher Perrella.

Still, some junior mining companies are looking to build new mines over the medium and long term. Vancouver, British Columbia-based Lithium Americas Corp. is hoping to have permits approved for its Thacker Pass project in Nevada in 2020. Construction of the mine, with an initial annual capacity of 30,000 tons, could start next year if the company can raise the $581 million needed to build it.

“The challenges are building it quick enough and attracting capital,” Chief Operating Officer Jonathan Evans said. “If you look at a three- to five-year period from now, the market for electric vehicles and stationary storage batteries will be really growing, so it’s key for the investment to come now.”

Less than three years ago, Li-Cycle was little more than a drawing on the back of a napkin in a Yorkville coffee shop. Today, it is on the verge of an international expansion that could fundamentally alter the way that lithium-ion batteries are recycled.

“Tim Johnston, my co-founder, and I initially sketched out the Li-Cycle process in late 2016,” says Ajay Kochhar (ChemE 1T3), the company’s co-founder, President & CEO. Kochhar describes Li-Cycle as a resource-recovery company focused on creating a closed-loop supply chain for lithium-ion batteries.

“We started by looking at the financial model to see if the business could be viable. The initial answer that emerged was yes, so we were encouraged to pursue the opportunity further.”

Today, Li-Cycle can process more than a tonne of batteries each day at the pilot plant it operates in Kingston, Ontario. But the explosive growth of electric vehicles (EVs) in recent years, along with the robust historical use of lithium-ion batteries in consumer electronics such as smartphones and laptops, is driving demand higher. The company is planning an expansion to process more than 17 tonnes per day — and that is just the start.

“We’re inundated,” says Kunal Phalpher (ECE 0T5), the company’s Chief Commercial Officer. “When we talk to clients, within a few minutes of introducing ourselves, someone will say ‘Oh yeah, we’ve got pallets of batteries stored in the back that we had no idea what to do with. Can you take them?’”

According to the International Energy Agency’s Global Electric Vehicle (EV) Outlook, there are now more than three million EVs on the road, up from less than one million in 2014. Existing recyclers have traditionally focused on the smaller lithium-ion batteries present in consumer electronics and aren’t necessarily prepared to deal with the coming flood of batteries from EVs.

“In the incumbent industry, the key material they are recovering is cobalt. This is what is driving the process and economics,” says Kochhar, who did consulting work for a number of companies in the mining and metals industry before starting Li-Cycle. Extracting cobalt means using pyrometallurgy, that is, volatilizing or burning the batteries at high temperatures. Despite the large energy inputs, recovery in this system is low, about 30 to 40%.

By contrast, Li-Cycle has worked with collaborators to develop a process based on hydrometallurgy, or wet chemistry. They have invented a way to safely shred and reduce the size of the incoming batteries into tiny pieces. From there, they are run through a series of chemical reactions and separations. The result is recovery not only of cobalt, but also lithium, nickel and other substances, comprising 80 to 100% of the original battery.

“Our end products are equivalent in grade to those that would be produced from a virgin source,” says Kochhar. “They can go right back into the battery supply chain.”

Li-Cycle can recycle any type of lithium-ion battery and is completely agnostic to chemistry, form factor, prior application and size. But batteries from EVs, one of Li-Cycle’s target markets, contain less cobalt and are bulkier and more difficult to process compared to those from personal electronics. Given the low recovery of the traditional pyrometallurgical process, EV manufacturers typically pay high fees to get their batteries recycled. Li-Cycle’s higher recovery enables the company to charge a lower fee, one that Kochhar believes will continue to decrease over time.

“For example, Tesla, BMW and their peers ultimately don’t want to pay to have their batteries recycled,” he says. “Our approach enables resource recovery from lithium-ion batteries to actually be profitable, to the point where we have flexibility for alternate commercial models.”

The key to future success will be scaling up, and quickly. Using the learnings from the pilot plant, the team plans to soon open a full-scale facility in the U.S. that can process 5,000 tonnes of spent lithium-ion batteries per year. They recently signed a memorandum of understanding with SUNGHO Group, a major metals recycler in South Korea, where they hope to create a hub for the significant Asian market. They are also actively planning a facility in Europe.

Throughout their journey, both Kochhar and Phalpher have drawn extensively on the connections they made at U of T Engineering, as well as the values they developed during their undergraduate studies.

“We’ve hired several U of T Engineering students through the PEY Co-op program, and they have been critical to laying the groundwork that got us to where we are now,” says Phalpher. “It’s been great for us, but also for them. I think it’s really important to expose students to the wide range of opportunities they have to forge their own path and drive innovation.”

“The students we hire are sometimes surprised to learn that chemical engineers can start their own companies,” says Kochhar. “Not every startup needs to be an app. Chemical engineering at U of T taught me to assimilate new information quickly, to be adaptable, and to develop resiliency. I still use those abilities every day.”

Seattle Mayor Jenny Durkan touted the passage of a measure to require parking facilities to carry infrastructure for electric vehicles on Monday, but still faced criticism on social media.

The legislation requires that all residences with private parking include an electric vehicle-ready space. Multifamily buildings with shared parking, under the bill, are required to set aside at least 20 percent of spaces for the same purpose. That number dips down to 10 percent for parking garages in non-residential parking garages.

It also standardizes requirements for wiring and electrical outlets in EV-ready spaces.

“Seattle must continue to take bold action on many fronts to reduce carbon pollution and address the negative impacts of climate change. This includes investing in access to transit, bikes, and housing options near transit. This legislation is an important step forward to making sure Seattleites can reliably charge electric vehicles,” said Mayor Durkan in a news release.

The reception from the city’s green advocates, though, hasn’t been all positive, with many dubbing the legislation more of a half-measure than a solution.

“Bikes don’t emit carbon,” one Twitter user responded. “Investments in safe infrastructure would go a long way to reducing Seattle’s carbon emissions.”

“I’ll come back when you can toot your horn with something on mass transit or bicycle infrastructure,” another person said.

Many were upset when an updated version for the city’s Master Bike Plan appeared to significantly scale back plans to expand Seattle’s network of bike lanes.

“You know what would have constituted not even bold action but sensible, moderate action? A protected bike lane on 35th,” a third responder claimed.

The hope for this legislation is to ultimately decrease carbon emissions, while saving money by getting EV-ready infrastructure involved in construction as early as possible.

“We need to do more to reduce the number of vehicles on our roads and to move to electric vehicles,” Durkan’s statement continued. “It is significantly more cost efficient to include EV infrastructure in construction from the start. Our actions to reduce emissions from transportation will help create a healthier and more just city.”

It’s not the first time Seattle has made strides toward electrifying automobile infrastructure in the city. In 2015, the mayors of Seattle, Portland, Eugene, San Francisco, and Los Angeles met to discuss a range of carbon reduction plans and among them was a commitment to develop a “West Coast Electric Highway” or a “Green Wall.” Essentially, they wanted to create a system of EV charging stations along the West Coast.

In 2016, the city started “Drive Clean Seattle,” an effort to electrify the city’s own fleet. It also provides incentives for private parties to move away from fossil fuels. At the time, the goal was to have 15,000 electric vehicles on Seattle-area roads by 2025.

Electric cars have been around for as long as their gas-guzzling counterparts. But technical limitations such as battery size and efficiency have until recently hampered mass adoption of what is demonstrably a cleaner and more efficient form of fuel-powered transport.

Today, thanks to innovations in how electricity is collected, stored, and discharged, we have recently entered a new era of motorized mobility. Innovations such as high-energy lithium ion battery cells, the development of battery-charging networks, and engineering feats like hybrid drivetrains and regenerative braking, are rapidly making electric vehicles and gas-electric hybrids a new normal. Now, most of the world’s largest automakers either offer eco-friendly electric and hybrid cars or are developing them.

While internal combustion engines will be around for the foreseeable future, fuel economy is climbing thanks to a combination of technological development and regulatory nudges, such as vehicle fuel economy mandates in the United States and European countries, among other nations.

With the new hybrid technologies, today it is possible to own hybrid cars able to drive the equivalent of over 40 miles to the gallon. Fully electric cars fare even better, able to drive the equivalent of over 100 miles on a gallon of gasoline.

While hybrids and electric cars have only been adopted by a small portion of the market, they are growing in popularity. One of the models on this list, the BMW i3 was among the 26 fastest selling cars of 2018.

The following is a list of the most eco-friendly vehicles in the U.S. marketplace for the 2018 model year. All figures come from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s annual review of fuel economy for all passenger vehicles sold in the United States to determine the most fuel-efficient vehicles in the market for the 2018 model year. For electric vehicles, the fuel efficiency figure listed is in MPGe, or miles-per-gallon equivalent, a metric developed by the EPA to translate the fuel economy of vehicles running partially or exclusively on electricity into miles per gallon of gasoline.

In a few cases, multiple versions of a given model have different fuel efficiencies, all of which are high enough to make the list. In those cases, we list only the most fuel-efficient model.

18. Chevrolet Malibu Hybrid
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 46 mpg
• Type: Midsize hybrid sedan
• Annual fuel cost: $900

The Chevy Malibu Hybrid is one of two Chevrolet vehicles on this list. Its 80-cell, 1.5kWh lithium-ion battery pack provides extra mileage compared to the 30 mpg non-hybrid version. The Malibu Hybrid can run on battery power alone at speeds of up to 55 mph before the gasoline engine kicks in. The 2019 model costs around $28,000, about $6,000 more than the gasoline only version. The vehicle earns an Excellent rating from Motor Trend.

17. Honda Accord Hybrid
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 47 mpg
• Type: Large hybrid sedan
• Annual fuel cost: $900

The hybrid version of one of the best selling cars in the United States squeezes out an extra 14 mpg compared to the most efficient non-hybrid Accord. Honda claims that the 2019 Accord Hybrid gets an extra mile per gallon, 48 mpg, compared to the 2018 model. The Accord Hybrid costs about $25,000, or about $2,000 more than the starting price for the non-hybrid version. The Accord Hybrid is one of two Hondas on this list.

16. Kia Niro FE
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 50 mpg
• Type: Hybrid crossover
• Annual fuel cost: $850

The $24,400 Kia Niro FE traditional hybrid crossover gets a little more mileage than the slightly fancier Niro LX. An extra $5,000 gets you the plug-in hybrid version that gets less mileage than the FE when the gasoline engine runs solo but an MPGe of 105 when the battery is assisting. For 2019, Kia introduced a fully electric Niro with an MPGe of 112 and a maximum range of 240 miles.

15. Toyota Camry Hybrid LE
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 52 mpg
• Type: Midsize hybrid sedan
• Annual fuel cost: $800

The entry-level LE version of the Toyota Camry Hybrid gets 18 miles per gallon more than the most fuel efficient four-cylinder version of the non-hybrid Camry, and it draws out 6 more miles per gallon than the pricier XLE and SE versions of the Camry Hybrid. Though it is pricier and less roomy than the larger Honda Accord Hybrid, at about $28,000 for the 2019 base model, it gets measurably more fuel economy.

14. Toyota Prius Two Eco
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 56 mpg
• Type: Midsize hybrid sedan
• Annual fuel cost: $750

The most fuel efficient version of the Toyota Prius starts at about $25,000 but gets 4 more miles to the gallon (combined city and highway) than the standard Prius that costs about $2,000 less. Toyota also has the Prius Prime, a $28,000 plug-in hybrid that can travel up to 25 miles on battery power alone, giving it an MPGe of 133, but it has a lower mpg than the Prius Two Echo when its battery is not assisting.

13. BYD e6
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 72 MPGe
• Type: Small electric crossover
• Annual fuel cost: $900

The only Chinese-made vehicle on this list has an EPA-verified range of 187 miles per full battery charge. It takes up to 5 hours to fully charge the vehicle’s lithium ion battery pack. BYD, which is primarily known for producing electric car batteries and electric buses, is backed by U.S. business magnate Warren Buffett. BYD is touting the e6 as an ideal ride-sharing vehicle, but the vehicle is rarely seen in the United States.

12. Tesla Model X 75D
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 93 MPGe
• Type: Electric midsize SUV
• Annual fuel cost: $700

With a starting price tag of about $83,000 this all-wheel drive 75D with the 75-kWh battery pack (a max distance per charge of 237 miles) is the most fuel efficient version of the Model X. Tesla announced in January it will no longer accept orders for this base model. The new base model is the same vehicle with a 100 kWh battery pack, which has an MPGe of 87 miles but can travel up to 289 miles on a fully charged battery pack.

11. Tesla Model S 75D
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 103 MPGe
• Type: Fullsize electric sedan
• Annual fuel cost: $650

The Model S with a 75 kWh battery is the most fuel efficient version of Tesla’s electric sedan. But like the Model X, Tesla announced earlier this year it was scrapping the smaller battery pack. The new battery would entail a price jump of the new Model S base price of $18,000 to about $98,000. The 100D gets 102 MPGe and it can travel about 270 miles on a fully charged battery pack compared to 237 miles for the 75D.

10. Ford Focus Electric
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 107 MPGe
• Type: Compact electric car
• Annual fuel cost: $600

Ford Motor Company’s push into fully electric vehicles included a battery powered version of its Focus compact. Despite the car’s robust fuel economy rating, it was never very popular in the U.S. or European markets, where consumers have more choices in small fuel efficient vehicles. Ford announced last year it would stop selling five of its six sedans in North America, including the Focus Electric.

9. Smart Fortwo Electric Drive
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 108 MPGe
• Type: Electric two-seat hatchback
• Annual fuel cost: $600

If you live in a big U.S. city you have probably spotted one of these quirky hatchbacks, and it was probably parking in a space in which few other cars could fit. The coupe version of the minicar, which starts at about $24,500, is among the top 10 most eco-friendly vehicles in the U.S. market. In some larger cities, the cars are available as ride-sharing vehicles through car2go, the company owned by German auto giant Daimler, which is also the owner the Smart brand.

8. Fiat 500e
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 112 MPGe
• Type: Electric subcompact car
• Annual fuel cost: $600

Like the Smart Fortwo Electric Drive, the Fiat 500e is pretty much a city-only vehicle, not a car that is conducive to road trips or extensive highway travel. But its tiny size and battery power makes it among the most eco-friendly cars available in the United States. With a price tag of nearly $34,000 and a limiting 84 miles of range on a full battery charge, however, the Fiat 500e may only fit few lifestyles.

7. Nissan Leaf
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 112 MPGe
• Type: Electric five door hatchback
• Annual fuel cost: $600

Nissan announced in March it sold 400,000 Leafs worldwide since the car was first introduced in 2010, and that the Leaf is the first electric car to date to reach the milestone. Starting at just under $30,000 (excluding any state or federal green-vehicle tax credits) the Leaf is sold with a 40 kWh or 62 kWh battery, giving 150 miles or 226 miles of range per full charge, respectively.

6. Honda Clarity EV
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 114 MPGe
• Type: Electric midsize sedan
• Annual fuel cost: $600

With a range of only 89 miles per fully charged battery, the Clarity EV, which costs about $36,600 before any available state and federal tax credits, would work best for small commutes in areas with ample places to charge the battery. Plus, it is only available in Oregon and California. For about $3,000 less, Honda offers a plug-in gas-electric hybrid Clarity with 110 MPGe that can travel up to 47 miles on battery power alone.

5. BMW i3
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 118 MPGe
• Type: Electric subcompact car
• Annual fuel cost: $550

The i3 and its sportier but less fuel efficient i3s may be the most eye-catching of the small electric cars, with their carbon fiber trim and sleek, minimalist interiors. But the i3 also comes with a heftier price tag, about $45,400 before any available state and federal tax credits. It also lags behind comparable cars on this list in how far it can travel on one full battery charge, at just 153 miles.

4. Chevrolet Bolt EV
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 119 MPGe
• Type: Electric subcompact car
• Annual fuel cost: $550

The Bolt is an unlikely winner for Chevrolet’s parent company, General Motors, which generally relies on its lineup of big SUVs and pickup trucks. The vehicle has received positive reviews for its handling and spaciousness, as well as its 238-mile range on a fully charged battery. Starting at about $36,600 before any available tax credits, the Bolt costs less than the BMW i3 but more than a roomier but less fuel efficient Honda Clarity plug-in hybrid.

3. Volkswagen e-Golf
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 119 MPGe
• Type: Electric compact car
• Annual fuel cost: $550

Car & Driver magazine described the e-Golf as a “handsome little package” that has all of the pep of the regular Volkswagen Golf. The $32,800 electric car sits right about in the middle of the price range for small electric cars, and like other green vehicles qualifies for tax credits. But the e-Golf lags on driving range compared to comparable models like the Chevrolet Bolt and Tesla Model 3 at just 125 miles.

2. Tesla Model 3 Long Range
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 130 MPGe
• Type: Electric midsize sedan
• Annual fuel cost: $500

The Tesla Model 3 did not turn out to be the $35,000 Tesla for the masses that company co-founder Elon Musk initially promised. Still, starting at about $39,500 before any available tax credits, the Model 3 is currently the lowest priced new Tesla. However, buyers have to drop another $10,000 on top of the base price for the long-range battery to reach 130 MPGe and an industry-leading range of 325 miles per full battery charge.

1. Hyundai Ioniq Electric
• Fuel (or energy) efficiency: 136 MPGe
• Type: Midsize electric vehicle
• Annual fuel cost: $500

The fully electric version of the Hyundai Ioniq led the pack in the 2018 model year with a whopping 136 MPGe. Starting at $30,700 it is also toward the lower end of the electric-car price scale. The Ioniq, however, has an unremarkable maximum 124-mile range. Cost-conscious buyers might be better off sacrificing some fuel economy for the lower-cost Ioniq plug-in hybrid that can travel up to 29 miles on battery power alone.

Methodology

24/7 Wall St. pored through the Environmental Protection Agency’s annual review of fuel economy for all passenger vehicles sold in the United States to determine the most fuel-efficient vehicles in the market for the 2018 model year.

All of the vehicles on this list earned the EPA’s top ranking of “10” for being the most fuel efficient relative to other vehicles available in the market. For electric vehicles, we included only those with an MPGe of more than 70 miles to the gallon. MPGe, or miles-per-gallon equivalent, is a metric developed by the EPA to translate the fuel economy of vehicles running partially or exclusively on electricity into miles per gallon of gasoline. This provides consumers with an apples-to-apples comparison between electric-powered vehicles and their gas-burning equivalents.

Unlike conventional hybrid cars, which use batteries that reclaim energy from braking and coasting, plug-in hybrid vehicles use a rechargeable battery that can be plugged into a recharging station. These plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) can travel for short distances on battery power before the gasoline engine is activated. Because of this quality, PHEVs have both an MPGe and mpg rating. To determine the ranking of a PHEV, we deferred to the vehicle’s mpg rating, assuming most PHEV drivers will typically travel distances beyond what the on-board battery can provide.

Both mpg and MPGe ratings on this list assume 55% city driving and 45% highway driving.